From oceans to thrones: How Rajendra Chola's sea raids altered the fate of nations

Almost a thousand years ago, from the banks of the River Cauvery in Thanjavur, began one of the most daring conquests in global history. Andhra, Telangana, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and even West and East Bengal surrendered meekly in this conquest. But it didn’t end there—it continued, vanquishing empires and crossing seas.

Charging ahead with the most powerful naval force of the time, secret messages about their arrival spread fearfully through enemy lines: They are coming. The Cholas. No one could hold them off with men or weapons. This formidable force was led by the son of Ponniyin Selvan Raja Raja Chola, the great empire builder.

Rajendra Chola I, one of the most militarily astute kings the world has ever seen, was a conqueror of the seas and the Ganga River, earning him the title Gangaikonda Cholan. By the time his conquests ended, the vast Chola Empire stretched from Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Thailand to Malaysia, Singapore, Cambodia, and the Indonesian archipelago. Following these victories, he was bestowed with another title: Kadaaram Kondan.

The golden age of the Cholas
The Chola reign is considered the zenith of South Indian history. From a princely state, they emerged as rulers of an empire, thanks to the conquests of Raja Raja Chola, often hailed as the architect of their golden age. But the Cholas’ elevation as a dominant power that terrorized emperors came through the efforts of his son, Rajendra Chola I—a king who crossed seas to establish an empire outside the Indian subcontinent.

Rajendra Chola I, declared heir in 1012, ascended the throne in 1014. His primary aim was to further his father’s expansionist legacy. Beginning with Sri Lanka, he completed the conquest his father started, capturing the entire island and imprisoning King Mahinda V of the Sinhalese kingdom. But his ambitions stretched far beyond this.

The northern conquests
Following in the footsteps of the great Digvijay Samudragupta, Rajendra Chola led his army to Bengal via Kalinga. After subduing the Chalukya and Kalinga kingdoms, the Chola army clashed with Mahipala I, ruler of the Pala Kingdom in Bengal. Unable to withstand the Cholas' might, Mahipala conceded defeat. Rajendra Chola then carried Ganga water back to the Chola homeland, earning him the title Gangaikonda Cholan.

Maritime supremacy
Under Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became one of the most powerful in India, with maritime trade serving as its lifeblood. However, the lucrative trade routes to China were controlled by the Srivijaya Empire, which dominated the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java. The Sailendra kings of Srivijaya, staunch Mahayana Buddhists, maintained close ties with the Cholas. For instance, a Buddhist vihara in Nagapattinam was built by a Sailendra king with land granted by the Cholas.

Yet, trouble arose when Srivijaya began deploying pirates to attack Chola merchant ships. Recognizing the need to secure these trade routes for Tamil merchants, Rajendra Chola decided to confront the Srivijaya Empire.

Building a naval powerhouse
To prepare for the confrontation, Rajendra Chola transformed the Chola navy. Cargo ships were repurposed into formidable warships, and fleets capable of transporting large armies—including horses and elephants—were constructed. Historical records suggest that China may have provided assistance in building these ships.

Once ready, the Cholas provoked Srivijaya by violating its maritime rules. When Srivijaya attacked Chola merchant ships with pirates, Rajendra Chola launched a lightning naval strike. The Chola fleet overwhelmed Srivijaya, conquering key regions like Kadaaram (modern-day Kedah) and Sumatra. Rajendra Chola entrusted the governance of these territories to his commanders-in-chief, securing Chola supremacy in Southeast Asia and opening trade routes in the Bay of Bengal, which came to be known as the "Chola Lagoon."

A legacy that endures
After cementing maritime dominance, Rajendra Chola established diplomatic ties with China, earning respect from its royal dynasties. He maintained a three-pronged military comprising cavalry, elephants, and infantry, complemented by a powerful naval fleet. Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller who visited Kerala in the 13th century, noted the Chola navy’s dominance over the Malabar and Coromandel coasts.

By the 13th century, however, internal conflicts led to the decline of the Chola dynasty, with the Pandyas and Hoysalas eventually rising to power.

Today, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the capital Rajendra Chola built, is a small village near Thanjavur. Yet, the art, culture, literature, and architecture of the Cholas continue to influence South India. Their Dravidian architectural style remains unparalleled, exemplified by the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, built by Raja Raja Chola, and the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple constructed by Rajendra Chola.

Rajendra Chola’s contributions to literature earned him the title Panditha Cholan, and his secular rule is often celebrated. His legacy also includes the Kallanai Dam on the River Cauvery, built over a thousand years ago and still functional today.

Although the timid kings who succeeded Rajendra Chola failed to expand the empire, his achievements remain monumental. No other ruler in Indian history strengthened the nation’s maritime forces like Rajendra Chola, whose legacy lives on—immortalized in the Indian Navy’s training ship, T S Rajendra. Like Napoleon Bonaparte and Alexander the Great, Rajendra Chola is a conqueror who rewrote history.